Manera Manuela (Università di Torino, Italia)

 

Gender categories in the new technologies: a research into word’s thesaurus[1]

 

“Le dictionnaire est un création idéologique. Il reflète la société et l’idéologie dominante. En tante qu’autorité indiscutable, en tant qu’outil culturel, le dictionnaire joue un rôle de fixation et de conservation, non seulement de la langue mais aussi de mentalités et de l’idéologie”. (Yaguello 1979, p. 165)

 

0. Introduction

This research continues a work begun on Thesaurus of Word 6.0 (Windows1998) in different European languages (Bazzanella et al.) with the intention of looking into the treatment of gender categories into new technologies.

Looking among tools offered by a very commonly used program like Microsoft Word, we found Thesaurus; if a definition of a word is unknown to us and we want to know it or we want to substitute a word with another of similar meaning, the tool Thesaurus gives us a list of words, named “meanings”, with, sometimes, their “synonyms” and “antonyms”[2].

The use of such a tool is much more easy and quick compared to searching in a paper thesaurus. This may involve the absence of a critical view and the wrong assumption of its “objectivity” just because it is a new technology[3]; in the schools, for example, Thesaurus is considered a good instrument for improving students’ lexical competence[4]. The importance of how gender categories are organised in Thesaurus and, then, of how gender categories become usable is relevant not only for a correct linguistic competence but also, and mainly, for the consequent kind of organisation that everyone gives to their own world experiences[5].

We analysed information given by Thesaurus for a couple of entries through the criteria of quantity, quality, distribution and organization. What comes out are old stereotypes detrimental of a women’s image, so that, unexpectedly (or expectedly!), the new technology contributes to the implicit sexism of the language[6].

 

1. Structure of entries and visibility

On analysing entry it is important to consider not only the quantity and the quality (that is semantic values) of words, but also the structure of entry itself. In fact the position a word occupies in the set given by Thesaurus is closely connected with its relevance in defining lemma; that is: the more relevant a word is in relation to the definition of the lemma, the more it is visible. In the structure of the entry we can recognize different degrees of visibility, those are in a decreasing list: “meanings” (from the first to the last) with the “synonyms” of the first “meaning”, and then all other “synonyms” (to decrease)[7].

So the different structure of the entries, that is the dissimilar disposition of words according to the gender, is an important criterion to find discriminating strategies; and we will see some cases of manipulation and concealment of information in female entries[8].

 

2. Woman and man

Beginning with the couple donna/uomo (1), we immediately take notice of a strong lack of balance: the female entry has an undoubtedly lower quantity of words; in fact we count only 17 terms against the 42 of the male entry[9].

(1)             donna: femmina, figlia d’Eva, signora (signorina), tale (tizia, una), dama (regina)  /  maschio, uomo, signore, adolescente, fanciulla, ragazzina, teen-ager, giovinetta

  uomo: maschio (mortale, persona, essere umano, essere ragionevole, creatura pensante, individuo, cittadino, creatura, cristiano, figlio di Adamo, signore, tale, tipo, tizio), il prossimo (umanità, gente, genere umano, specie umana), adulto, operaio (addetto, incaricato, tecnico, dipendente, lavoratore, lavorante), soldato (militare, milite, uomo armato, marinaio), uno (qualcuno)  /  donna, femmina, gentil sesso, bambino, bestia, bruto, animale

There are only 8 corresponding terms: femmina/maschio, figlia d’Eva/figlio d’Adamo, signora/signore, tale/tale, tizia/tizio, una/uno and, among “antonyms”, maschio/femmina, uomo/donna. But towards neither of them can we talk about equality: in fact, their distribution - that is their relevance - is different in the two entries (save the first and fifth terms)[10].

Analysing with more attention the correspondent words of (1), we realized that the couple signora/signore, given (and read by user) as morphological and semantic correspondence, is not equivalent in a semantic-pragmatic view: the female lemma, as its “synonym” specifies, concerns only a couple relationship, instead the male lemma could refer also to a situation of competence and authority as we can see also in (3)[11]. But the disclosure of this false correspondence happens only in close analysis: the discrimination is on a deep and dangerously implicit level[12].

If we have foreseen that in man we will find terms linked with the universal and neutral value, it is surprising to see its redundancy[13]; what is more worrying is the fact that the main part of those words (mortale, persona, essere umano, essere ragionevole, creatura pensante, individuo, creatura) belongs to “synonyms” of an unambiguous maschio rather than to “meanings” of man (see Thesaurus 6.0[14])[15]. All these words have no correspondence in the female entry.

Analysing other words that are significantly exclusive of uomo (cittadino, cristiano[16], tipo, adulto, operaio and its “synonyms” addetto, incaricato, tecnico, dipendente, lavoratore, lavorante, soldato with “synonyms” militare, milite, uomo armato, marinaio), we find a strong redundancy to become repetitious with the couple lavorante/lavoratore and militare/milite; moreover, these words describe the stereotypic male sphere of action (business and militarism). On the contrary, the less numerous words belonging only to donna[17] (signorina, dama, regina) refer to a fabulous world, far from reality.

It is to underline also the insistence of words concerning individualism, that we find in the male entry: apart from tale, tizio and uno - words with a female correspondence (in spite of the partial different dispositions) - individuo, tipo, adulto are only in the male entry.

In addition to the already said chiasmus of maschio uomo / donna femmina, in “antonyms” there are no correspondent terms: so that we have different ambits (that is different social values) drawn for the two genders. Among donna’s “antonyms”, and in an undoubtedly significant third position, the word signore appears: since among “antonyms” of man there is not signora but in its correspondent position we find the stereotypic collocation gentil sesso, the semantic incompatibility of the couple donna/signore seems to be based not on a gender criterion, but rather on an allusion to power asymmetry[18].

The other terms of the female entry (adolescente, fanciulla, ragazzina, teen-ager, giovinetta) are persistently about physiologic area, while in the male lemma, where only bambino is linked to age, there is a predominant ‘cultural’ opposition: uomo vs bestia, bruto, animale (see Dante: “fatti non foste a viver come bruti”- Inf.XXVI,119).

 

3. Other couples

In the couple femmina/maschio we find once again more words in the male entry[19]:

(2)      femmina: donna (amica, amante, compagna, moglie, sposa, partner), persona timida (persona debole, persona pavida)  /  maschio, uomo

  maschio: maschile (virile, forte, energico, vigoroso, mascolino), bambino (ragazzo, uomo), uomo aitante (uomo robusto)  /  femminile, femmineo, femminino, debole, effeminato

The correspondent words (donna/uomo) have a different distribution[20] and a very dissimilar sense: in fact, if we consider them in the cotext, we discern that donna refers to a person inside a social relations web (about of all concerning couple), whereas uomo refers simply to one’s age in life.

In a semantic perspective, we can organise words belonging to both entries in two groups: on one hand those describing ‘qualities’, on the other those establishing ‘subjectivity’. Apart from their different sequence, for each of two semantic groups, what comes out are different and antithetical images according to the gender: for femmina, a social-subject characterised by decisively stereotypical emotion (that are: weakness, shyness, fear); for maschio, an individual-subject described through only physical and stereotypical qualities .

Some other considerations:

-         in the female lemma, the words relating to subjectivity are the most common and also overcome the maschio’s ones. But all of them refer to a relational net (amica, amante, compagna, moglie, sposa, partner), inside where the subject is devoid of autonomy and of independency, and it plays a complementary rule[21].

-         in both genders the terms referring to qualities tell stereotypes both about image (weak woman / macho man) and, before, about semantic areas: what is proper to male should be physical qualities and what is proper to female should be emotional ones[22]. Then, in the male entry we find just univocal gender references (uomo aitante, uomo robusto), while in the female entry there is a generic (but far from neutrality, for its implicit negative sense) persona: it means there are also timidi, deboli and pavidi men, but just the male can (or must?) be aitante and robusto[23] .

-         in maschio, there is the redundant return of terms about power and bravery (forte, energico, vigoroso, uomo aitante, uomo robusto)[24].

There is another dissymmetry found in “antonyms”. If in the female entry the semantic incompatibility seems to belong just to a linguistic level, in the male one it doesn’t; through the equivalence femminile-debole-effeminato, we realize that maschio brings not ad personam reference, but an identifying over-meaning so that the femmina/maschio opposition shifts to a stereotypical and discriminating plan[25].

Analyse now (3).

(3)      signora:  dama (gentildonna, padrona, dominatrice, proprietaria, imperatrice, principessa, regina, sovrana, aristocratica, matrona, nobildonna, patrona, patronessa, protettrice), donna, sposa (moglie)  /  povera, nullatenente, spiantata, proletaria, sottoposta, serva, domestica, nubile, signorina

 signore:  sire, uomo ricco (uomo distinto, uomo elegante), gentiluomo (nobiluomo), uomo, marito, Dio (creatore, onnipotente, padre, padreterno), principe (dominatore, reggitore, padrone, capo, proprietario, imperatore, re, sovrano), aristocratico (mecenate, patrono, protettore), tipo (tizio, uno), coniuge  /  suddito, servo, povero, indigente, nullatenente, spiantato, cafone, zotico, villanzone

Again we have a lack of balance, whose relevance grows if we observe, in addition to the number of words[26], also the important parameter of entries’ structure.

What comes out is a greater care in the articulation of lexematic material in the male entry, where the relation and the pertinence among 10 “meanings” and correlated “synonyms” (whole 20) is globally equilibrate, in spite of marito - coniuge redundancy (both “meanings”). Instead in signora we find just 3 “meanings” and 14 of 15 “synonyms” agglutinate around the first “meaning”, actually without a justifiable synonymous relation.

Considering the correspondent words, we can see that “meanings” of signore, once in the female entry, are made flat and become indistinctively “synonyms” of dama[27]; the result is the loss, for signora, of a entry hierarchy, that means the lack of a helpful guide for a proper use of Thesaurus.

Besides as foreseeable as unjustified asymmetry of terms concerning with religious sphere[28], and of ones referring to an indefinably subject (tipo and its “synonyms”), if we compare sole female terms and sole male ones, we realize they differ each other not only semantically, but also functionally: the sole female terms (dama, matrona, sposa) bring new semantic information in the female entry; instead the sole male terms impress yet present semantic fields, so that we have a redundancy about when those terms are “meanings” and not “synonyms”: this causes the mere repetition of sire-principe (imperatore, re, sovrano) and uomo ricco-aristocratico.

Other redundancies in signore are: the “uomo” sound, which returns among first words of the male entry for six times or as morpheme or as (part of) lexical item, and it seems to impress implicitly the equivalence signore-man; and the already said marito-coniuge repetition, that is significant because of the important position the first word occupies (in opposition to the correspondent female term) and because of the distance between those two “meanings”, distance that reinforces the image of the marito-signore (see (9), where padre-genitore is described as capo della famiglia).

Also among “antonyms” we note dissymmetry. The activated semantic sphere is only partially correspondent: if in both groups some terms with common semantic characteristics appear (those are: subordination, low social level and poverty) - even if it’s possible to recognize indicative differences[29] - we have a deep differentiation in other terms; in fact, in signora they refer to a relational-marring situation (signora means married woman vs nubile, signorina), while in signore they concern a behavioural ambit (so that signore is well-educated man vs cafone, zotico, villanzone). The two entries witness once again two very different realities not only in language, but also in society.

In (4) the symmetry fails for the lack of correspondence between metà and uomo: the moglie is described without individual completeness and autonomy and as a (incomplete) part of a married relationship; in opposition to marito that keeps the own (powerful) integrity.

(4)       moglie: sposa (compagna, metà, coniuge, consorte)

marito: sposo (uomo, compagno, coniuge, consorte)

With (5) we see an example of greater lexematic richness and greater careful structure for the female entry. But the semantic (and employment) sphere the lemmas concern is without prestige.

(5)    domestica: servitrice (collaboratrice familiare, cameriera, inserviente, famiglio), donna di servizio (colf, camerista, ancella, fantesca)  /  superiora, padrona, signora

domestico: servitore (collaboratore familiare, cameriere, inserviente, famiglio)  /  superiore, padrone, signore

Analyse the sole female terms: they are synonymic variants belonging to different linguistic registers; apart from the presence of donna di servizio as “meaning” rather than “synonym”[30], and colf (arbitrary given only for female lemma[31]), there are: the Ispanism camerista, that is “1. cameriera di corte o di famiglie signorili; 2. (lett.) cameriera”, the Latinism ancella, referring to “1. (lett.) donna al servizio o al seguito di qualcuno; 2.(scherz.) domestica, colf”, and the ancient term fantesca for “serva, domestica”[32].

The greatest lexematic richness of one entry - whatever it is: effective informational contribution or mere synonymic redundancy - in comparison with its own gender correspondent, witnesses what semantic ambit is considered pertinent to one of two genders. From this view the cases (3) and (5) reveal a (hidden) sexist discrimination.

Furthermore, the complexity of the female entry is actually only seeming: in fact the presence of famiglio[33] among “synonyms” of servitrice talks about the bottom carelessness in the redaction of the entry, carelessness that we will find again in (8) in an almost joking example.

Moreover, we note that, in spite of morphological correspondence, the “antonyms” padrona and padrone are not really semantically equivalent. In fact, if we search the two lemmas, we get:

(6)       padrona: conoscitrice (intenditrice, esperta, specialista)  /  serva, servitrice, schiava, suddita, operaia, impiegata, lavoratrice, dipendente, subalterna, proletaria, garzona, ignorante, incompetente, inesperta, incapace

 padrone: possessore (proprietario, capitalista, borghese), principale (capo, boss, titolare, industriale, imprenditore, datore di lavoro), signore (dominatore, sovrano, governante, tiranno, despota, arbitro, detentore), persona riverito, armatore, conoscitore (intenditore, esperto, specialista)  /  servo, servitore, schiavo, suddito, operaio, impiegato, lavoratore, dipendente, subalterno, proletario, garzone, ignorante, incompetente, inesperto, incapace

Besides a quantitative unbalance, so that the male entry includes twice as many terms than the female (21 more terms!)[34], there is a deep dissymmetry on the semantic level: a woman can be padrona only concerning to competences that she has – or that stereotypically have been ascribed to her – and she can exert power, if it is acknowledged, just in that cognitive field where she is esperta; instead a man is padrone because about of all he is possessore, and not of cultural possession (conoscitore is the last of “meanings”), but of financial ones; capitalista or imprenditore, detentore of a social and judicial power, the padrone dominates over subordinates, and, datore di lavoro or tiranno he can be, he always is a persona riverito[35].

Then, in the male entry there is the dangerous mixture of terms referring to positive social reality (for example titolare, datore di lavoro, governante) and terms referring to negative social reality (for example boss, usually used about crime context, tiranno, despota).

If we find symmetry in the couple compagna/compagno:

(7)      compagna: amica (collega, socia, compare, sodale), convivente (partner, consorte, amante), commilitone (camerata), collaboratrice, consorella, complice (correa), comunista  /  nemica, avversaria, concorrente, estranea

 compagno: amico (collega, socio, compare, sodale), convivente (partner, consorte, amante), commilitone (camerata), collaboratore, confratello, complice (correo), comunista  /  nemico, avversario, concorrente, estraneo

in (8) the lexematic (but not semantic: e.g. signorina/signorino) correspondence gets the absurd with the presence in ragazza of terms: sbarbatello[36], scugnizzo and boyfriend; this event is not only another sign of carelessness in the redaction of Thesaurus, but also a reduction of the feminine to the masculine[37]. Moreover, the three exclusive terms of the female entry (nubile, pulzella and vergine), wrongly given as “meanings”[38], re-propose the semantic ambit already brought by fanciulla redundantly and in a culturally marked way.

(8)      ragazza: fanciulla (giovanetta, adolescente, giovane, giovinetta, signorina, ragazzina), marmocchia (sbarbatello, scugnizzo, picciotta), fidanzata (boyfriend, compagna, innamorata, partner), morosa (amichetta, bella, filarino), garzona (fattorina, commessa, aiutante, apprendista), nubile (pulzella, vergine)

ragazzo: fanciullo (giovanetto, adolescente, giovane, giovinetto, signorino, ragazzino), marmocchio (sbarbatello, scugnizzo, picciotto), fidanzato (boyfriend, compagno, innamorato, partner), moroso (amichetto, bello, filarino), garzone (fattorino, commesso, aiutante, apprendista)

 

4. Looking into family

Now analyse some entries about family, beginning with the couple madre/padre:

(9)      madre: genitrice (mamma), femmina, suora (monaca, superiora, priora, badessa), origine (causa, radice, fonte, sorgente), matrice, con figlio

 padre: genitore (capo della famiglia, babbo, papà, procreatore), progenitore (capostipite, antenato, avo), uomo venerabile (uomo venerato), autore (inventore, scopritore, fondatore, iniziatore, maestro, guida, caposcuola, promotore, fautore, benefattore, protettore, mecenate), sacerdote (prete, monaco, frate), santo patrono, dio (padre eterno, creatore)  /  figlio, discendente, successore, seguace, discepolo, epigono, diavolo, demonio, satana

The male entry not only has a undoubtedly higher quantity of words (41 against the 15 of madre, with only 4 correspondences), and a more complex structure (with “antonyms”, unlike the female entry), but it also covers semantic areas that are male exclusive.

Already comparing the correspondent “meanings” genitrice/genitore, we discover a deep dissymmetry: while genitrice has mamma as its only “synonym”, besides papà and babbo, genitore not only has as its first “synonym” capo famiglia, a term connected to a social and familiar reality that (we hope) has been over by now, but it has also - and unnaturally - procreatore.

The madre is femmina, that is origine, causa, fonte, matrice: she has been merely reduced into an object, generating other bodies, and she is not considered life-giving nor creatress. The one who is the real antenato-capostipite that procreates and secures the offspring is the padre: that is uomo not only venerabile, but also venerato (note the redundancy), maestro and guida, benefattore and mecenate, inventore and promotore. So, while madre is femmina con figlio, padre is uomo not linked to family ties yet full of authority, power, creativeness.

We find religious ambit in both entries, but in female one it is arbitrarily[39] confined to human reality, instead in padre it doubles on two levels: human (e.g. sacerdote) and divine one (e.g. santo patrono, dio, and among “antonyms” satana, diavolo). The presence of creatore among “synonyms” of dio impresses, and amplifies to a divine level, the unnatural and paradoxical attribution to only padre of life-giving power.

If we analyse the couple genitrice/genitore, we find more balance, in spite of capo famiglia being given as padre’s “synonym”. What is more surprising is the first “meaning” in the female entry, that is generatore: is this one among the several Thesaurus’ oversights or a wanted reduction of feminine to masculinity?

(10)   genitrice: generatore (procreatrice), creatrice (ideatrice), madre (mamma)

genitore: generatore (procreatore), creatore (ideatore), padre (papà, babbo, capo famiglia)

In (11) the symmetry fails for the presence of rampollo among “meanings” of figlio: it seems concerning to a patrilinear and patriarchal mentality that we have already found in (9).

(11)   figlia: bambina (ragazza), discendente (nata, generata, erede), donna (femmina)

figlio: bambino (ragazzo), discendente (nato, generato, erede), uomo (maschio), rampollo

In the couple sposa/sposo we have a lack of correspondence between “synonyms” of moglie and marito: so that we find, on one hand, donna maritata (that is woman given to husband) and, on the other, uomo sposato. Furthermore, among “antonyms”, in addition to first two words inversion, there is the dissymmetry between signorina, that refers only to a conjugal situation, and the more neutral giovanotto.

(12)   sposa: coniuge (consorte, signora, compagna, promessa sposa), fidanzata, moglie (donna maritata)  /  nubile, zitella, signorina

 sposo: coniuge (consorte, signore, compagno, promesso sposo), fidanzato, marito (uomo sposato)  /  scapolo, celibe, giovanotto

In (13) finally we count more words for the female entry:

(13)   nubile: donna non sposata (signorina, ragazza), single, non sposata (non coniugata, non maritata)  /  donna sposata, signora, donna coniugata, maritata

celibe: scapolo, libero (senza moglie, non sposato, non coniugato)  /  sposato, ammogliato, coniugato

but nubile is described through four litotes[40], among which only two have correspondences in celibe; these litotes are redundant to each other to the point of mere repetition (e.g. we have donna non sposata as the first “meaning” and, on the same time, non sposata as third “meaning”).

Similar considerations are possible for (14):

(14)   zitella:  non sposata (non maritata), bisbetica (brontolona)  /  sposa, maritata, madre, moglie

scapolo: celibe (non ammogliato), giovanotto (single), libero  /  sposato, ammogliato, coniugato

where, in the female entry, there are two litotes as first “meaning” and “synonym”. In zitella we find a mainly relational description: in fact, among “antonyms” there are maritata, madre, moglie, while in the male entry there is only ammogliato.

In scapolo the first “meaning” given is not a defining term, rather a synonymous variant belonging to a more prestigious linguistic register, so that the lemma is connotatively neutralized (in fact, it occurs in (13) as “meaning”); instead zitella not only wholly lacks the variant nubile, but also has a negative and stereotypical semantic area that is its exclusive: its second “meaning” is bisbetica, that is brontolona

 

5. Two couples of adjectives

Finally, two couples of adjectives that disclose stereotypical semantic associations:

(15)     effeminato: femmineo (muliebre), debole (delicato, tenero, fiacco, snervato, sdolcinato, languido, frivolo, lezioso)  /  mascolino, forte, energico, valoroso

 mascolino: maschile (virile, maschio, poco femminile), forte (muscoloso)  /  femminile, delicato, debole, effeminato

(16)   femminile: di donna (da donna, femmineo, donnesco, femminino, muliebre), effeminato (debole, fiacco, molle, snervato), dolce (tenero, delicato, fragile, grazioso, aggraziato, armonioso  /  maschile, virile, mascolino, forte, maschio, rude, possente, prestante, aitante

 maschile: da uomo (virile, maschio, maritale), forte (energico, vigoroso, mascolino)  /  femminile, da donna, femminino, muliebre, donnesco, debole, effeminato

The characters connected to female pole are those about weakness, fragility, mawkishness, frivolity; instead those linked to male pole are about physical strength, energy, vigour. If who is forte behaves da uomo (so that a forte woman is poco femminile), who is fragile or aggraziato is effeminato, that is molle, snervato. Maschile is da uomo, and it’s a way of doing; femminile is di donna, that is a way of intrinsically being.

It’s also surprising the fact we found maritale among “synonyms” of the “meaning” da uomo: so that being maschile means also to be rude (see “antomyms” of femminile), and this shall be proper of the husband.

 

6. Conclusion

From the analysis we have led, Thesaurus reveals itself as a tool very far from the ‘objectivity’ and the ‘modernity’ that users presupposed it has just because it belongs to a new technology. Instead, as already in Word 6.0 (see Bazzanella et al.), Thesaurus of Word 9.0 maintains and supports the stereotypes about gender through the manipulation of information: so that what is drawn for the two sexes are stereotypical and powerfully asymmetrical images[41].

Summing up, we have found:

·         a greater complex structure and greater richness of terms in the male entries (e.g. (3), (6), (9)).

·         when it happens that the female entry has the greater quantity of words, the terms belong to a particular semantic ambit, that refers to a stereotypically domestic and family reality, as we can see in (5) and (8).

·         even when the words are given (and generally considered) as symmetrical terms, they are actually not correspondent in a semantic-pragmatic view: in fact, they describe different images for the two genders, supporting a man’s greater authority (see signora/signore in (1) in comparison also with (3), and donna/uomo in (2) or genitrice/genitore in (9)).

·         into a deeper level, what differs between male and female entries is the way the information is organised, according to the two criteria of distribution (or visibility) and sequence (or frequency). In fact, for correspondent lexemes we can see in the two entries:

1)      a different distribution: what in the entry of a particular gender is among “meanings” (that is immediately visualized and visible) in the other one is only among “synonyms” (that is in a more hidden level, so that it can be seen more difficultly) - (for example: (1) and (3));

2)      a different sequence: the “meanings”/“synonyms” are given in a decreasing order, from the more common (pertinent) for describing the lemma to the lesser ones; so that through the disposition it is possible to draw dissimilar images for the two sexes (as, for example, conoscitrice/conoscitore in (6)).

So the different hierarchy of information given to the entries permits to handle, sharply and cunningly, the sense of lexemes and the image they bring.

·         sometimes there are deformations and cancellations of information too. It happens for both genders, but in functionally different ways: if, on one hand, the male prestigious is maintained (for example: (3) and (14)), on the other one, or the female is not described as powerful and authoritative (e.g. (6), (9)) or she is led back to the male, as we can see in (8) and (10), or paradoxically she is deprived also of her natural functions (as in (9)).

·         at times there are cases of redundancy, but, once again, they occur with different functions according to the gender: so that in the male entries the redundancy needs to impress man’s universal value, power and authority (e.g. (1), (2), (3) and (9)), while in the female entries it relegates the woman into a stereotypical and without prestige ambit (e.g. (5), (8) and (13))[42].

·         the words in the female entry describes the woman mainly not as an individual person, but as one in relation with others, lacking of autonomy; this creates the opposition male-individuality and female-relationality (see (1), (2), (4), (9), (12), (13)).

·         what Thesaurus proposes is the male line of heredity and man’s social superiority (e.g. (9) and (11)), besides the common stereotypes about male strength and female grace ((15) and (16)).

In the majority of cases, the handling of information, supporting old gender stereotypes, is hidden under a superficial symmetry so that what we have is a deeper and implicit discrimination. This is very worrying, since “la tematica dell’implicito gioca infatti un ruolo cruciale nei processi inferenziali e nella costruzione del significato (cfr. Grice 1988/1993, Levinson 1983/1985, Sbisà i.c.s., Sperber e Wilson 1986/1993); come sappiamo è più difficile contrapporsi a posizioni mascherate ed implicite che a posizioni dichiarate ed esplicite” (Bazzanella et al., i.c.s.)[43].

Furthermore, too many times the female lemmas are led to the (sphere of) correspondent male ones: there is a no-said-about-women (to say in Violi’s words: “un indicibile femminile”), that is the absence of woman as a real subject. Since “definire la specificità di un soggetto femminile significa anche caratterizzare la differenza al di fuori delle forme dualistiche che da sempre ne marcano l’iscrizione nell’ordine patriarcale, cercandone il segno in una logica non simmetrica e complementare a quella maschile” (Violi 1986, p.193)[44], we can say the female subject is ‘not found’ by Thesaurus.

 

References

AA.VV. (1987), Il grande dizionario garzanti della lingua italiana. Milano, Garzanti.

BAZZANELLA C., CAMUGLI-GALLARDO C., GUIL P., MANERA M., TEJADA P. (in the press): «Categorizzazioni del femminile e del maschile nelle nuove tecnologie: prime ricerche nel Thesaurus italiano, spagnolo, francese, inglese di Word», in Cuadernos de filologia italiana.

BAZZANELLA C., FORNARA O., MANERA M. (i.c.s.): «Indicatori linguistici e stereotipi al femminile», in Marcato G. (a cura di): Segni linguistici al femminile.

CORDA, A. (1998): «Treatment of senses and collocations in dictionaries: an issue for lexicology and lexicography», in The Structure of the Lexicon in Functional Grammar, Studies in Language Companion Series, John Benjamins. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp.195-211.

GRICE P. (1988/1993): Studies in the ways of words. Cambridge, CUP (tr. it. a cura di Moro G.: Logica e conversazione. Bologna, Il Mulino).

HAZON M. (1961): Grande dizionario inglese-italiano italiano-inglese. Milano, Garzanti.

LEVINSON S. C. (1983/1985): Pragmatics. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. (tr. it. di Bertuccelli-Papi M.: La pragmatica. Bologna, Il Mulino).

LYONS, J. (1977/1980): Semantics, voll. I e II. Cambridge,            Cambridge University Press. (tr. it. solo del vol. I, Manuale di semantica. Bari, Laterza).

MARELLO C. (1990): «The Thesaurus», in Hausmann F.J., Reichmann O., Wiegand H. E., Zgusta L. A. (Herausgegeben von) 1989-1991, Wörterbücher. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie, 3 voll. Berlin, New York, de Gruyter; pp.1083-1094

SBISA’ M. (1999): «Ideology and the Persuasive Use of Presuppositions», in Verschueren J. (a cura di) (i.c.s.): Language and ideology. Antwerp, International Pragmatics Association .

SPERBER D., WILSON D. (1986/1993): Relevance. Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press (tr. it. La teoria della pertinenza).

VIOLI P. (1986): L’infinito singolare.Considerazioni sulla differenza sessuale nel linguaggio. Verona, Essedue.

VIOLI P. (1997): Esperienza e significato. Milano, Bompiani.

YAGUELLO M. (1979): Les mots et les femmes. Paris, Payot.

 

Appendix

Addetto: attaché

Adolescente: adolescent

Adulto: adult

Aggraziato: graceful

Aitante: vigorous

Aiutante:helper

Amante: lover

Amica: (female) friend

Amichetta: (female) little friend

Amichetto: (male) little friend

Amico: (male) friend

Ammogliato: married man

Ancella: maid-servant

Animale: animal

Antenato: ancestor

Apprendista: apprentice

Arbitro: arbitrator

Aristocratica: (female) aristocrat

Aristocratico: (male) arsitocrat

Armatore: ship-builder

Armonioso: harmonious

Autore: auctor

Avo: grandfather

Avversaria: (female) antagonist

Avversario: (male) antagonist

Babbo: daddy

Badessa: abbess

Bambina: little girl

Bambino: little boy

Bella: (female) sweetheart

Bello: (male) sweetheart

Benefattore: benefactor

Bestia: beast

Bisbetica: waspish

Borghese: middle class person

Brontolona: (female) grumbler

Bruto: brute

Cafone: boor

Camerata: comrade

Cameriera: waitress

Cameriere: waiter

Camerista: lady’s maid

Capitalista: capitalist

Capo: leader

Capo della famiglia: family head

Caposcuola: leader of movement

Capostipite: founder of family

Causa: cause

Celibe: celibate

Cittadino: citizen

Collaboratrice: (f.) collaborator

  =  familiare: family collaborator

Collaboratore: (m.) collabotator

  =  familiare: family collaborator

Collega: colleague

Commessa: shop-girl

Commesso: shop-man

Commilitone: yellow-soldier

Compagna: (female) mate

Compagno: (male) mate

Compare: godfather

Complice: accomplice

Comunista: comunist

Concorrente: candidate

Con figlio: with child

Confratello: (religious) brother

Coniugato: (male) married

Coniuge: consort

Conoscitore: (male) connoisseur

Conoscitrice:  (f.) connoisseur

Consorella: (religious) sister

Consorte:consort

Convivente: cohabitant

Correa: (female) offender

Correo: (male) offender

Creatore: creator

Creatrice: creatress

Creatura: creature

   =  pensante: thinking creature

Cristiano: Christian

Da donna: proper of woman

Dama: lady of rank

Datore di lavoro: employer

Da uomo: proper of man

Debole: weak

Delicato: delicate

Demonio: demon

Despota: despot

Detentore: holder

Diavolo: devil

Di donna: woman’s

Dio: God

Dipendente: employee

Discendente: descendant

Discepolo: disciple

Dolce: sweet

Domestica: maid

Domestico: man-servant

Dominatore:  (male) ruler

Dominatrice: (female) ruler

Donna: woman

  =   di servizio: house-maid

  =   coniugata: married woman

  =   maritata: wedded woman

= non sposata: unmarried woman

  =   sposata: married woman

Donnesco: womanlike

Effeminato: effeminate

Energico:energetic

Epigono:follower

Erede: heir

Esperta: (female) expert

Esperto: (male) expert

Essere ragionevole:rational being

  =    umano:  human being

Estranea: (female) foreign

Estraneo:  (male) foreign

Famiglio: attendant

Fanciulla: young girl

Fanciullo: young boy

Fantesca: maid-servant

Fattorina: office-firl

Fattorino: office-boy

Fautore: supporter

Femmina: female

Femminile: womanly

Femmineo: womanish

Femminino:feminine

Fiacco: exhausted

Fidanzata:girl-friend

Fidanzato: boy-friend

Figlia: daughter

  =   d’Eva: Eve’s daughter

Figlio: son

  =   di Adamo: Adam’s son

Filarino: fiancé 

Fondatore: founder

Fonte: spring

Forte: strong

Fragile: brittle

Frate: friar

Frivolo: frivolous

Garzona: (female) apprendice

Garzone: (male) apprendice

Generata: (f.) generate

Generato: (m.) generated

Generatore: generator

Genere umano: humanity

Genitore: (male) parent

Genitrice: (female) parent

Gente: people

Gentildonna: gentlewoman

Gentiluomo: gentleman

Gentil sesso: gentle sex

Giovane: young

Giova(i)netta: lass

Giova(i)ne(o)tto: lad

Governante: ruler

Grazioso: graceful

Guida:guide

Ideatore: inventor

Ideatrice: inventress

Ignorante: ignorant

Il prossimo: neighbor

Imperatore: emperor

Imperatrice: empress

Impiegata: (female) employee

Impiegato: (male) employee

Imprenditore: entrepeneur

Incapace: unable

Incaricato: appointee

Incompetente: incompetent

Indigente: indigent

Individuo: individual

Industriale: industrialist

Inesperta: (female) inexpert

Inesperto: (male) inexpert

Iniziatore: initiator

Innamorata:  woman in love

Innamorato: man in love

Inserviente: servant

Intenditore: (male) good judge

Intenditrice: (female) good judge

Inventore: inventor

Languido: languid

Lavorante: worker

Lavoratore: workman

Lavoratrice: workwoman

Lezioso: mincing

Libero: free

Madre: mother

Maestro: teacher

Mamma: mum

Marinaio: sailor

Maritale: marital

Marito: husband

Marmocchia: (female) kid

Marmocchio: (male) kid

Maschile: (adj.) male

Maschio: (noun) male

Mascolino: masculine

Matrice: matrix

Matrona: matron

Mecenate: maecenas

Metà: half

Militare: soldier

Milite: militiaman

Moglie: wife

Molle: flabby

Monaca: nun

Monaco: munk

Morosa: sweetheart girl

Moroso: sweetheart boy

Mortale: mortal

Muliebre: womanly

Muscoloso: muscular

Nata: (female) born

Nato: (male) born

Nemica: (female) enemy

Nemico: (male) enemy

Nobildonna: noblewoman

Nobiluomo: nobleman

Non coniugata/o: unmarried

  =   maritata: unwedded woman

  =   sposata/o: unmarried

Nubile: single woman

Nullatenente: without property

Onnipotente: all-powerful

Operaia: factory girl

Operaio: worker

Origine: origin

Padre: father

Padreterno: Eternal

Padrona: mistress

Padrone: master

Papà: dad

Patrona: (femal) patron

Patronessa: patroness

Patrono: patron

Persona: person

  =   debole: weak person

  =   pavida: fearful person

  =  riverito: reverd person

  =  timida: shy person

Picciotta: (female) youngster

Picciotto: (male) youngster

Poco femminile: less womanly

Possente: powerful

Possessore: owner

Povera: (female) poor

Povero: (male) poor

Prestante: good-looking

Prete: priest

Principale: principal

Principe: prince

Principessa: princess

Priora: prioress

Procreatore: procreator

Procreatrice: (female) procreator

Progenitore: ancestor

Proletaria: (female) proletarian

Promessa sposa: promised bride

Promesso sposo: promised spouse

Promotore: promoter

Proprietaria: (female) owner

Proprietario: (male) owner

Protettore: protector

Protettrice:  protectress

Pulzella: maid

Qualcuno: someone

Radice: root

Ragazza: girl

Ragazzina: little girl

Ragazzino: little boy

Ragazzo: boy

Rampollo: offspring

Re: king

Reggitore: governor

Regina: queen

Rude: rough

Sacerdote: priest

Santo: saint

Satana: satan

Sbarbatello: young colt

Scapolo: bachelor

Schiava: (female) slave

Schiavo: (male) slave

Scopritore: discoverer

Scugnizzo: urchin

Sdolcinato: mawkish

Seguace:adherent

Senza moglie: without wife

Serva: woman-servant

Servitrice: (female) servant

Servitore: (male) servant

Servo: man-servant

Signora: lady

Signore: mister

Signorina: miss

Signorino: master (young boy)

Sire: sire

Snervato: enervated

Socia: (female) member

Socio: (male) member

Sodale: companion

Soldato: soldier

Sorgente: source

Sottoposta: (female) submitted

Sovrana: (female) sovereign

Sovrano: (male) sovereign

Specialista: specialist

Specie umana: humankind

Spiantata: (female) ruined

Spiantato: (male) ruined

Sposa: bride

Sposato: (male) married

Sposo: bridegroom

Subalterna: (female) subordiante

Subalterno: (male) subordiante

Successore: successor

Suddita: (female) subject

Suddito:  (male) subject

Suora: nun

Superiora: superior

Superiore: superior

Tale: certain person

Tecnico: technician

Tenero: tender

Tipo :type

Tiranno: tyrant

Titolare:proprietor

Tizia: (female) fellow

Tizio: (male) fellow

Umanità: humankind

Uno: one

Uomo: man

  =   aitante: vigorous man

  =   armato: armed man

  =   distinto: distinguished man

  =   elegante: elegant man

  =   ricco: rich man

  =   robusto: robust man

  =   sposato: married man

  =   venerabile: venerable man

  =   venerato: venerated man

Valoroso: brave

Vergine: virgin

Vigoroso: vigorous

Villanzone: (male) ill-bred

Virile: manly

Zitella: spinster

Zotico: boorish